PT  - JOURNAL ARTICLE
AU  - Killip, Shersten
AU  - Mahfoud, Ziyad
AU  - Pearce, Kevin
TI  - What Is an Intracluster Correlation Coefficient? Crucial Concepts for Primary Care Researchers
AID  - 10.1370/afm.141
DP  - 2004 May 01
TA  - The Annals of Family Medicine
PG  - 204--208
VI  - 2
IP  - 3
4099  - http://www.annfammed.org/content/2/3/204.short
4100  - http://www.annfammed.org/content/2/3/204.full
SO  - Ann Fam Med2004 May 01; 2
AB  - BACKGROUND Primary care research often involves clustered samples in which subjects are randomized at a group level but analyzed at an individual level. Analyses that do not take this clustering into account may report significance where none exists. This article explores the causes, consequences, and implications of cluster data. METHODS Using a case study with accompanying equations, we show that clustered samples are not as statistically efficient as simple random samples. RESULTS Similarity among subjects within preexisting groups or clusters reduces the variability of responses in a clustered sample, which erodes the power to detect true differences between study arms. This similarity is expressed by the intracluster correlation coefficient, or ρ (rho), which compares the within-group variance with the between-group variance. Rho is used in equations along with the cluster size and the number of clusters to calculate the effective sample size (ESS) in a clustered design. The ESS should be used to calculate power in the design phase of a clustered study. Appropriate accounting for similarities among subjects in a cluster almost always results in a net loss of power, requiring increased total subject recruitment. Increasing the number of clusters enhances power more efficiently than does increasing the number of subjects within a cluster. CONCLUSIONS Primary care research frequently uses clustered designs, whether consciously or unconsciously. Researchers must recognize and understand the implications of clusters to avoid costly sample size errors.