Abstract
PURPOSE Although the digital rectal examination (DRE) is commonly performed to screen for prostate cancer, there is limited data to support its use in primary care. This review and meta-analysis aims to evaluate the diagnostic accuracy of DRE in screening for prostate cancer in primary care settings.
METHODS We searched MEDLINE, Embase, DARE (Database of Abstracts of Reviews of Effects), Cochrane Central Register of Controlled Trials, Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews, and CINAHL (Cumulative Index to Nursing and Allied Health Literature) from their inception to June 2016. Six reviewers, in pairs, independently screened citations for eligibility and extracted data. Pooled estimates were calculated for sensitivity, specificity, positive predictive value (PPV), and negative predictive value (NPV) of DRE in primary care settings using an inverse-variance meta-analysis. We used QUADAS-2 (Quality Assessment of Diagnostic Accuracy Studies 2) and GRADE (Grades of Recommendation Assessment, Development, and Evaluation) guidelines to assess study risk of bias and quality.
RESULTS Our search yielded 8,217 studies, of which 7 studies with 9,241 patients were included after the screening process. All patients analyzed underwent both DRE and biopsy. Pooled sensitivity of DRE performed by primary care clinicians was 0.51 (95% CI, 0.36–0.67; I2 = 98.4%) and pooled specificity was 0.59 (95% CI, 0.41–0.76; I2 = 99.4%). Pooled PPV was 0.41 (95% CI, 0.31–0.52; I2 = 97.2%), and pooled NPV was 0.64 (95% CI, 0.58–0.70; I2 = 95.0%). The quality of evidence as assessed with GRADE was very low.
CONCLUSION Given the considerable lack of evidence supporting its efficacy, we recommend against routine performance of DRE to screen for prostate cancer in the primary care setting.
Footnotes
Conflicts of interest: authors report none.
Systematic review registration: PROSPERO CRD42016042585. July 8, 2016.
Authors’ contributions: J.P. and L.N. conceived the research question. J.P., L.N., and B.D. designed the review protocol. L.N. and L.B. designed the search strategy, which was completed by L.B. The systematic screening of studies for inclusion independently and in duplicate was completed by J.P., L.N., H.R., B.D., D.W., O.K., and M.B. L.N. and H.R. performed data extraction and quality assessment of included studies independently and in duplicate. Z.S. performed analyses. All authors contributed equally to the writing and revision of the manuscript. All authors approved the final version of the manuscript.
Supplementary materials: Available at http://www.AnnFamMed.org/content/16/2/149/suppl/DC1/.
- Received for publication April 19, 2017.
- Revision received September 21, 2017.
- Accepted for publication October 4, 2017.
- © 2018 Annals of Family Medicine, Inc.